Physical product MVP: core, expected and delight features
MVP for physical products: what it means for manufacturers, which forms it can take, how to classify features with Kano and validate them in the field.
Sara Strizzolo
16th October 2026
An MVP for a physical product is the minimum version that lets a manufacturer test a market hypothesis before investing in tooling and certification: it can be the machine itself, but also a simulation, a service or a pilot installation. The concept comes from software startups, where a minimal version is released and improved in successive cycles; with hardware, every change becomes more expensive the further development progresses. In this guide we look at the forms an MVP can take, how to classify features as core, expected and delight using the Kano model, and how to validate them. The callouts share the experience of Silvia Piccin, Product Owner Innovation at Electrolux Professional and a guest on
Expert Talks (in Italian).
What is an MVP: origin and definition
An MVP, or minimum viable product, is the version of a new product that lets you test a market hypothesis with the least possible effort.
The term was introduced in 2001 by Frank Robinson, co-founder and president of the consultancy SyncDev, who saw it as the product offering the maximum return on investment relative to risk; it was later popularized by Eric Ries, the author of the Lean Startup method (Productboard). The most widely cited definition is the one Ries published on his blog in 2009: the version of a new product that lets a team collect "the maximum amount of validated learning about customers" with the least effort. In the same post Ries points out that an MVP, despite its name, is not about creating minimal products (Eric Ries, Startup Lessons Learned).
Ries's definition shifts the focus from the product to learning. The MVP is the first turn of the build, measure, learn loop, the fastest way to test a hypothesis with minimal risk. An MVP is therefore not a scaled-down product but the cheapest way to find out whether the product is worth building at all.
Why the MVP works differently for physical products
The MVP works differently for physical products because the cost of every change grows as development progresses, and industrial customers will not accept a half-finished product.
Three constraints weigh more than the others:
- Rising cost of change: the further along a product is, the more it costs to change it; reworking tooling during production can be very expensive and cause delays of weeks or months. Tooling decisions also lock in design choices.
- Regulatory compliance: according to the European Commission's Blue Guide, a product that has been substantially modified after being put into service must be treated as a new product, and its conformity must be assessed again under the applicable procedure.
- Industrial customer expectations: anyone buying a machine expects reliability, documentation and warranties, because a single faulty component can bring an entire line to a halt.
This creates an apparent paradox: a method designed for learning fast seems incompatible with products that must be certified before they can create value. The answer proposed by those who apply agile methods to hardware is to move the MVP from the final product to the learning process. Upstream, the MVP is used to test hypotheses and can take forms that differ from the product; downstream, whatever reaches the customer must be reliable.
"For me, the minimum viable product is still the finished product that the customer can use." Silvia Piccin, Product Owner Innovation at Electrolux Professional (translated from Italian). In her field, the MVP that reaches the customer must deliver full functionality, usability true to the final version and the "touch and feel" of every point of contact with the machine.
Forms of hardware MVP
Nello sviluppo agile di prodotti fisici si distinguono diverse forme di MVP, scelte in base all'ipotesi da verificare:
- MVP di funzionalità: si certifica e si consegna solo la funzione principale, mentre i moduli successivi arrivano in seguito. Richiede un'architettura di prodotto modulare.
- MVP di segmento: il prodotto completo esce prima in un mercato più semplice o con requisiti meno stringenti, poi nel mercato principale.
- MVP di servizio: il beneficio viene erogato inizialmente come servizio manuale, per verificare requisiti e disponibilità a pagare prima che il prodotto esista.
- MVP digitale: gemelli digitali, modelli CAD e simulazioni raccolgono il feedback del cliente prima della realizzazione fisica.
- MVP «Wizard of Oz»: dal punto di vista del cliente il prodotto funziona, ma internamente alcune operazioni sono ancora svolte a mano.
Prototype, EVT, DVT and PVT: the development phases of a physical product
Physical product development moves through maturity phases separated by exit criteria, a phase-gate process in which each phase confirms that the product meets its requirements before moving to the next.
A prototype is a realization of the design used to communicate and assess the product against specific requirements: it can range from a foam or cardboard model to a working unit. An MVP has a different purpose: in agile hardware development, the prototype proves to the engineer that something can be built, while the MVP proves to the market that it is worth building.
After prototyping, electronics and consumer products follow three standard phases on the way to production: EVT, DVT and PVT. The way you listen to the voice of the customer changes in each one.
| Phase | Goal | Voice of the customer |
|---|---|---|
| POC and prototyping | Show that the concept is feasible and meets a need | Exploratory user tests |
| EVT (engineering validation test) | Reach a complete, production-ready engineering prototype | Lab tests with a select group of lead users |
| DVT (design validation test) | Industrialize the product and verify its reliability and compliance | In-situ tests with users in a real context |
| PVT (production validation test) | Confirm that the line produces consistently | Field analysis |
| Mass production | Maintain quality and prepare the next versions | Ongoing feedback |
Source: Formlabs.
DVT is when environmental, thermal, vibration and durability testing and certification take place, while some units are sent to potential customers as betas. By PVT, tooling and design are frozen and can no longer be changed. Field testing with customers therefore happens at a point where changes are still possible but already costly.
What is the Kano model: core, expected and delight features
The Kano model is a method that classifies a product's features according to their effect on customer satisfaction: must-be (core), one-dimensional (expected) and attractive (delight), as well as indifferent and reverse.
The model stems from the work of Professor Noriaki Kano of Tokyo Rika University and his colleagues Shinichi Tsuji, Nobuhiko Seraku and Fumio Takahashi, published in 1984 in Quality, the journal of the Japanese Society for Quality Control, under the title "Attractive quality and must-be quality". Building on Frederick Herzberg's theory of motivation, Kano concluded that the relationship between fulfilling a requirement and customer satisfaction is not necessarily linear (Center for Quality of Management Journal): some features disappoint when missing but do not excite when present, while others do the opposite.
| Level | Kano category | Effect on satisfaction | Automotive example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Core | Must-be | Disappoints when missing; when present, satisfaction never rises above neutral | Good brakes |
| Expected | One-dimensional | The better the requirement is met, the more satisfied the customer, and vice versa | Fuel economy |
| Delight | Attractive | Satisfies when present; does not disappoint when missing | Radio antenna that retracts automatically when the radio is off |
| None | Indifferent | Neither satisfaction nor dissatisfaction | Cigarette lighter |
Source: Center for Quality of Management Journal.
The Kano questionnaire also identifies two residual outcomes: reverse answers, when the customer thinks the opposite of whoever wrote the question, and questionable answers, when the two responses contradict each other. As a general rule, the Center for Quality of Management guide recommends meeting all must-be requirements, being competitive with market leaders on one-dimensional ones and including a few attractive elements that set the product apart.
Core features: the price of entry to a market
Core, or must-be, features are the requirements customers take for granted: however well they are executed, satisfaction never rises above neutral, but when they are missing the customer is dissatisfied. They are the price of entry to a market (University of Cambridge, Institute for Manufacturing); the classic example is a car's brakes.
For a machine manufacturer, the scope of core features goes beyond use: it also covers installation and maintenance, the subject of design for serviceability.
"The ones you take for granted, and if they're not there, you're disappointed." This is how Silvia Piccin describes the core features of a professional dishwasher, which has to wash with the expected performance. In her classification, core features also include everything the service partner needs for installation, delivery and maintenance.
Expected features: where competition happens
Expected, or one-dimensional, features are those where satisfaction rises in proportion to how well the requirement is met: in a car, better fuel economy increases satisfaction and worse fuel economy reduces it. These are what customers say they want, and a product's price is often tied to exactly these characteristics.
From the field. Silvia Piccin points to the reusable plastic cups used at concerts and events. Unlike ceramic, they do not retain heat, so they need dedicated washing and drying cycles: an expected feature for a specific segment, driven by a change in consumption habits.
Delight features: what customers don't know they want
Delight, or attractive, features increase satisfaction when present but do not disappoint when missing: customers do not expect them, but recognize them as an improvement. They often address latent needs and, when present, customers may be willing to pay a premium.
"The bigger the change, the more likely it is to meet some resistance, because it takes mental effort."
Silvia Piccin notes that even an attractive innovation has its limits: mobile banking apps improved the experience, but only became part of people's habits over time.
How to classify product features as core, expected and delight
Classifying a feature means measuring how customer satisfaction changes when it is present and when it is missing, choosing carefully who to ask and repeating the analysis over time.
The Kano questionnaire
For each feature, the Kano questionnaire asks a pair of questions: a functional one ("how would you feel if the product had this feature?") and a dysfunctional one ("how would you feel if it did not?"). There are five possible answers; one of the wordings reported in the Center for Quality of Management guide is: I like it, I expect it, I'm neutral, I can tolerate it, I dislike it.
Reading the two answers together in the Kano evaluation table gives the category. Some examples:
- "I expect it" if present and "I dislike it" if missing: must-be.
- "I like it" if present and "I dislike it" if missing: one-dimensional.
- "I like it" if present and "I'm neutral" if missing: attractive.
- "I'm neutral" in both cases: indifferent.
- "I like it" to both questions: questionable, because the answers contradict each other.
The method has a well-known limitation: in studies, participants tend to say they like almost everything (Microsoft Research), which is why the combined reading of both questions matters more than the functional answer alone. In B2B there is a further complication, because the person who buys a machine may not be the person who uses it: it is worth surveying buyers, operators and service technicians separately.
Lead users as a source of delight features
Delight features rarely emerge from a survey, because the average customer has not yet experienced the need. The concept of the lead user, introduced by Eric von Hippel of MIT in 1986, helps here: users whose current needs will become common in the market months or years later. Because they face today the conditions others will face in the future, they can serve as a need-forecasting laboratory, and they often already try to solve the problem themselves (von Hippel, Management Science).
The method has also been tested on industrial products: in a study of computer-aided design systems for printed circuit boards, product concepts developed with lead users were strongly preferred by a representative sample of users (Urban and von Hippel, MIT).
"If the same request starts coming up again and again, it's a sign that a new need is emerging in the market."
Silvia Piccin, on the requests that reach Electrolux Professional through its dealer network.
Segment and time change the classification
The same answers can reveal different segments. According to the Center for Quality of Management guide, when the classifications of a feature are split between two categories, you may be surveying two distinct market segments, and even a few reverse answers can point to a group of customers with different needs. This is why it pays to collect the data needed to tell segments apart and analyze them separately.
Time shifts the categories too. According to a hypothesis put forward by Akiba and Enkawa and taken up in research on attractive quality, product features "mature": they start out indifferent, become attractive, then one-dimensional and finally must-be (Springer). What surprises customers today, they will take for granted tomorrow.
How to validate a physical MVP with field testing
A physical MVP is validated through field testing: machines are placed with pilot customers who match the target segment, use them in real conditions and provide structured feedback.
Practitioners of agile hardware development suggest a few ways to secure the cooperation of industrial customers:
- Choose partner customers: customers who are open to innovation and keen to contribute, with special terms in exchange for their feedback.
- Change the name: externally, the MVP becomes a pilot project, an early access program or a co-development partnership.
- Reduce the customer's risk: free initial installation, a take-back guarantee or outcome-based pricing.
- Manage expectations: make clear from the start what the current version offers and what will come later.
- Define the hypothesis to test: an MVP is minimal enough when it makes one clear hypothesis testable.
"If I'm building a product for a hospital, I can't have it tested at the café down the street." Silvia Piccin, on choosing sample customers for field tests, whose feedback is gathered through questionnaires and open-ended questions.
Questionnaires, however, capture what customers say. Usability research recommends giving more weight to what users do than to what they say, because self-reported behavior is unreliable (Nielsen Norman Group). If the machines under test are connected, field testing can combine feedback with operating data.
In Things5 Connect, the IoT platform that machine manufacturers use to monitor, update and control their installed base remotely, field test machines are grouped together and tracked as a single set. For each one you can see measurements, operating states and their duration, and events, with alarms classified by severity. The manufacturer can define KPIs that combine several variables and compare them across the machines under test, while device notes capture qualitative observations from the people running the test. Data can be exported to Excel, with separate sheets for measurements, states and events.
If the firmware logs when cycles start and which functions are used, the classification can be checked against real use: a feature intended as expected that nobody activates needs rethinking, while a cycle used more than anticipated may deserve a place among the core features of the next version. We covered this in our
webinar on evolving products with real usage data (in Italian).
How to add features to a machine after launch
A machine that has already been sold can gain new features if its architecture allows for them and the manufacturer can update its software remotely.
This is the principle behind the feature MVP, which requires a modular architecture: further functions arrive when they are ready, provided the machine already has the hardware they need. We explored this approach in our article on software-driven innovation.
From the field. At Electrolux Professional, Silvia Piccin explains, machines are sometimes designed with built-in "provisions": the ability to communicate with and manage a feature for which a partner has not yet been found or the concept has not yet been finalized.
Things5 Connect puts this principle into practice on two fronts:
- Remote firmware updates: they can be launched on one machine or many, with the outcome visible for each machine and the option to rerun the operation only on those that failed. On models that support them, recipes can also be distributed in bulk to multiple machines.
- Per-machine commercial plans: each machine has a plan that determines which platform capabilities it unlocks and for how long, from view-only access up to configuration, commands and firmware updates. A manufacturer can offer basic monitoring to everyone and reserve functions such as remote commands for a higher tier.
Software updates do have limits. They cannot add functions that require components the machine does not have. In addition, according to the European Blue Guide, an update that changes a product's intended functions, type or performance in a way not covered by the original risk assessment may amount to a substantial modification and require a new conformity assessment. Features planned for after launch should therefore be considered from the design stage, including in the risk assessment.
Checklist for setting up an MVP for a physical product
- Define the hypotheses to test and choose the cheapest form of MVP for each one: digital, service, segment or feature.
- Run iterations before certification or in parallel with it, not afterwards.
- Classify candidate features with the Kano questionnaire, segment by segment, surveying buyers, users and maintainers alike.
- Include installation, delivery and maintenance among the core features, involving the service team from the design stage.
- Decide which expected and delight features are needed at launch and which will come later, planning now for the hardware they require and their impact on the risk assessment.
- Organize field testing with partner customers and combine questionnaires with operating data.
- Review the classification with every new product generation: what delights today will be expected tomorrow.
Evolve your machines even after launch.
Half an hour together: tell us how you develop and test your products, and we will show you how Things5 Connect collects field test data and brings new features to your installed base.
